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Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006
- FEMA454: DESIGNING FOR EARTHQUAKES
- Title Page
- Front Matter [Go to Page]
- FOREWORD AND ACKOWLEDGMENTS [Go to Page]
- BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- TABLE OF CONTENTS
- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION [Go to Page]
- 1.1 Background
- 1.2 The Architect's Role in Seismic Design
- 1.3 The Contents of This Publication
- 1.4 The Bottom Line
- CHAPTER 2: NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES AND SEISMIC HAZARDS [Go to Page]
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Observations of Earthquakes [Go to Page]
- 2.2.1 Plate Tectonics and Seismicity
- 2.2.2 Earthquake Fault Types
- 2.2.3 Earthquake Effects [Go to Page]
- Ground Shaking Intensity
- Landslides
- Tsunamis and Seiches
- Liquefaction
- 2.3 Seismic Waves And Strong Motion [Go to Page]
- 2.3.1 Seismic Instrumental Recordings and Systems
- 2.3.2 Types of Earthquake Waves
- 2.4. Seismic Sources And Strong Motion [Go to Page]
- 2.4.1 Earthquake Magnitude
- 2.4.2 Elastic Rebound and its Relationship to Earthquake Strong Ground Motion
- 2.4.3 Source Directivity and its Effect on Strong Ground Motions
- 2.5 Strong Ground Motion [Go to Page]
- 2.5.1 Duration of Strong Shaking
- 2.5.2 Estimating Time Histories
- 2.6. Seismic Hazard [Go to Page]
- 2.6.1 Empirical Attenuation Curves
- 2.6.2 Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) and Building Codes [Go to Page]
- Identification of the seismic source or faults.
- Characterization of annual rates of seismic events.
- Development of attenuation relationships
- Combining factors
- 2.7 Conclusions
- 2.8 Acknowledgments
- 2.9 Cited and Other Recommended References
- 2.10 Web Resources
- CHAPTER 3: SITE EVALUATION AND SELECTION [Go to Page]
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 Selecting and Assessing Building Sites in Earthquake Country [Go to Page]
- 3.2.1 Performance Criteria, Site Selection, and Evaluation
- 3.2.2 Building Program and Site Evaluation
- 3.3 The Inportance of the Right Team—Geotechnical Engineering Expertise [Go to Page]
- 3.3.1 The Site Assessment Process
- 3.3.2 Geotechnical Report Content
- 3.3.3 Additional Investigations to Determine Landslide and Liquefaction
- 3.3.4 Information Sources for the Site Assessment Process
- 3.4 Local Government Hazard Assessments—DMA 2000
- 3.5 Tools for Getting Started [Go to Page]
- 3.5.1 Understanding Regional Earthquake Risk-Big Picture of Expected Ground Motions [Go to Page]
- USGS 2002 Ground Motion Maps
- State Survey Risk Maps
- HAZUS Earthquake Loss Estimates
- 3.6 Earthquake Hazards to Avoid [Go to Page]
- 3.6.1 Earthquake Fault Zones [Go to Page]
- Mitigating Fault Zone Hazards
- Liquefaction Hazard Zones
- Mitigation Options for Liquefiable Sites
- Location of the Structure
- Intervention on the Site
- Special Design Considerations
- 3.6.3 Areas of Intensified Ground Motions
- 3.6.4 Ground Failure, Debris Flows, and Land Slides [Go to Page]
- Landslide Hazard Maps
- Mitigation Options
- 3.7 Off-Site Issues That Affect Site Selection [Go to Page]
- 3.7.1 Access and Egress
- 3.7.2 Infrastructure
- 3.7.3 Adjacency
- 3.8 Earthquake and Tsunami Hazards [Go to Page]
- Mitigating Tsunami and Coastal Surge Hazards
- Notes
- CHAPTER 4: EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS ON BUILDINGS [Go to Page]
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Inertial Forces and Acceleration
- 4.3 Duration, Velocity, and Displacement
- 4.4 Ground Amplification
- 4.5 Period and Resonance [Go to Page]
- 4.5.1 Natural Periods
- 4.5.2 Ground Motion, Building Resonance, and Response Spectrum
- 4.5.3 Site Response Spectrum
- 4.6 Damping
- 4.7 Dynamic Amplification
- 4.8 Higher Forces and Uncalculated Resistance
- 4.9 Ductility
- 4.10 Strength, Stiffness, Force Distribution, and Stress Concentration [Go to Page]
- 4.10.1 Strength and Stiffness
- 4.10.2 Force Distribution and Stress Concentration
- 4.11 Torsional Forces
- 4.12 Nonstructural Components
- 4.13 Construction Quality
- 4.14 Conclusion
- 4.15 References
- 4.16 To FInd Out More
- CHAPTER 5: SEISMIC ISSUES IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN [Go to Page]
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 The Basic Seismic Structural Systems [Go to Page]
- 5.2.1 The Vertical Lateral Resistance Systems
- 5.2.2 Diaphragms— The Horizontal Resistance System
- 5.2.3 Optimizing the Structural/Architectural Configuration
- 5.3 The Effects of Configuration Irregularity [Go to Page]
- 5.3.1 Stress Concentrations
- 5.3.2 Torsion
- 5.4 Configuration Irregularity in the Seismic Code
- 5.5 Four Serious Configuration Conditions [Go to Page]
- 5.5.1 Soft and Weak Stories (Code Irregularities Types V1 and V5)
- 5.5.2 Discontinuous Shear Walls (Code Type Irregularity V5)
- 5.5.3 Variations in Perimeter Strength and Stiffness (Code Type P1)
- 5.5.4 Re-entrant Corners (Code Type Irregularitiy H5)
- 5.6 Other Architectural/Structural Issues [Go to Page]
- 5.6.1 Overturning: Why Buildings Fall Down, Not Over
- 5.6.2 Perforated Shear Walls
- 5.6.3 Strong Beam, Weak Column
- 5.6.4 Setbacks and Planes of Weakness
- 5.7 Irregular Configurations: A Twentieth Century Problem [Go to Page]
- 5.7.1 A New Vernacular: The International Style and its Seismic Implications
- 5.8 Designing for Problem Avoidance [Go to Page]
- 5.8.1 Use of Regular Configurations
- 5.8.2 Designs for Irregular Configurations
- 5.9 Beyond the international Style: Towards a Seismic Architecture? [Go to Page]
- 5.9.1 The Architect's Search for Forms – Symbolic and Metaphorical
- 5.9.2 New Architectural Prototypes Today
- 5.9.3 Towards an Earthquake Architecture
- 5.9.4 Expressing the Lateral-Force Systems
- 5.9.5 The Earthquake as a Metaphor
- 5.10 Conclusion
- 5.11 References
- 5.12 To Find Out More
- CHAPTER 6: THE REGULATION OF SEISMIC DESIGN [Go to Page]
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.2 Earthquakes and Code Action [Go to Page]
- 6.2.1 Early 20th Century
- 6.2.2 The 1920s and the First Seismic Code
- 6.2.3 Mid-Century Codes and the Introduction of Statewide Regulations
- 6.2.4 Late 20th Century: the Move toward New Model Building Codes
- 6.2.5 Current Status of Seismic Code Development
- 6.3 Code Intent [Go to Page]
- 6.3.1 The Purpose of Earthquake Code Provisions
- 6.3.2 Conflicts Between Intent, Expectations, and Performance
- 6.4 Perfomance Based Seismic Design [Go to Page]
- 6.4.1 Prescriptive Design, Performance Design, and the Code
- 6.4.2 Definitions of Performance-Based Seismic Design
- 6.4.3 Implementing Performance-Based Seismic Design
- 6.5 Seismic Design Provisions [Go to Page]
- 6.5.1 Code-Defined Parameters
- 6.5.2 Performance Levels
- 6.5.3 Performance-Based Seismic Engineering
- 6.5.4 Engineering Analysis Methods
- 6.6 Nonstructural Codes
- 6.7 Conclusion
- 6.8 References
- CHAPTER 7: SEISMIC DESIGN — PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE [Go to Page]
- 7.1 Introduction
- 7.2 A Brief Summary of 100 Years of Structural Seismic Design
- 7.3 Historic and Current Structural-Seismic Systems [Go to Page]
- 7.3.1 Early Structural Systems-Pre-1906 San Francisco Earthquake
- 7.3.2 The Early Years (1906 – 1940)
- 7.3.3 The Middle Years (1945 – 1960)
- 7.3.4 The Mature Years (1960 – 1985)
- 7.3.5 The Creative Years (1985 – 2000)
- 7.4 Background and Progression of Structural-Seismic Concepts [Go to Page]
- 7.4.1 Development of Seismic Resisting Systems
- 7.4.2 Pictorial History of Seismic Systems
- 7.5 Commentary on Structural Frameworks [Go to Page]
- 7.5.1 Steel Building Frameworks
- 7.5.2 Concrete Building Frameworks
- 7.6 System Characteristics [Go to Page]
- 7.6.1 Elastic Design—Linear Systems
- 7.6.2 Post-Elastic Design—Nonlinear Drift
- 7.6.3 Cyclic Behavior
- 7.6.4 Performance-Based Seismic Design
- 7.6.5 Nonlinear Performance Comparisons
- 7.6.6 Energy Dissipation
- 7.7 The Search For the Perfect Seismic System [Go to Page]
- 7.7.1 Structural Mechanisms
- 7.7.2 Semi-Active and Active Dampers
- 7.7.3 Cost-Effective Systems
- 7.7.4 Avoiding the Same Mistakes
- 7.7.5 Configurations Are Critical
- 7.7.6 Common-Sense Structural Design-Lessons Learned [Go to Page]
- Select the Appropriate Scale
- Reduce Dynamic Resonance
- Energy Dissipation
- 7.8 Conclusions
- 7.9 References
- CHAPTER 8: EXISTING BUILDINGS — EVALUATION AND RETROFIT [Go to Page]
- 8.1 Introduction [Go to Page]
- 8.1.1 Contents of Chapter
- 8.1.2 Reference to Other Relevant Chapters
- 8.2 Background [Go to Page]
- 8.2.1 Changes in Building Practice and Seismic Design Requirements Resulting in Buildings that are Currently Considered Seismically Inadequate [Go to Page]
- Changes In Expected Shaking Intensity and Changes in Zoning
- Changes in Required Strength or Ductility
- Recognition of the Importance of Nonlinear Response
- 8.2.3 Code Requirements Covering Existing Buildings [Go to Page]
- Passive Code Provisions
- 8.3.1 FEMA-Sponsored Activity for Existing Buildings [Go to Page]
- Rapid Visual Screening
- Evaluation of Existing Buildings
- Techniques Used in Seismic Retrofit
- Financial Incentives
- Development of Benefit-Cost Model
- Typical Costs of Seismic Rehabilitation
- Technical Guidelines for Seismic Rehabilitation
- lDevelopment of a Standardized Regional Loss Estimation Methodology—HAZUS
- Incremental Rehabilitation
- 8.3.2 The FEMA Model Building Types
- 8.4 Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings [Go to Page]
- Identification of clearly vulnerable or dangerous buildings to help establish policies of mitigation [Go to Page]
- Earthquake Loss Estimation
- Formal Economic Loss Evaluations (e.g. Probable Maximum Loss or PML)
- Rapid Evaluation
- 8.4.2 Evaluation of Individual Buildings [Go to Page]
- Initial Evaluation (ASCE 31 Tier 1)
- Intermediate Evaluation (ASCE 31 Tier 2)
- 8.4.3 Other Evaluation Issues [Go to Page]
- Data Required for Seismic Evaluation
- Performance Objectives and Acceptability
- Reliability of Seismic Evaluations
- 8.5 Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings [Go to Page]
- 8.5.1 Categories of Rehabilitation Activity [Go to Page]
- Modification of Global Behavior
- Modification of Local Behavior
- Connectivity
- 8.5.2 Conceptual Design of a Retrofit Scheme for an Individual Building
- 8.5.3 Other Rehabilitation Issues [Go to Page]
- Inadequate recognition of disruption to occupants
- Collateral required work
- 8.5.4 Examples
- 8.6 Special Issues With Historic Buildings [Go to Page]
- 8.6.1 Special Seismic Considerations
- 8.6.2 Common Issues of Tradeoffs
- 8.6.3 Examples of Historical Buildings
- 8.7 Conclusion [Go to Page]
- 8.8.1 References from Text
- 8.8.2 To Learn More
- CHAPTER 9: NONSTRUCTURAL DESIGN PHILOSOPHY [Go to Page]
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 What is Meant By the Term “Nonstructural” [Go to Page]
- 9.2.1 Architectural Components
- 9.2.2 Mechanical and Electrical Components
- 9.2.3 Consequences of Inadequate Nonstructural Design
- 9.3 Nonstructural Seismic Design and “Normal” Seismic Design
- 9.4 Effects of Improper Nonstructural Design
- 9.5 Damage to Nonstructural Systems and Components
- 9.6 Design Details for Nnstructural Damage Reduction [Go to Page]
- 9.6.1 Precast Concrete Cladding Panels
- 9.6.2 Suspended Ceilings
- 9.6.3 Lighting Fixtures
- 9.6.4 Heavy (Masonry) Full-Height Non load Bearing Walls
- 9.6.5 Partial–Height Masonry Walls
- 9.6.6 Partial-Height Metal Stud Walls
- 9.6.7 Parapet Bracing
- 9.6.8 Sheet Metal Ductwork
- 9.6.9 Piping
- 9.6.10 Vibration-Isolated Equipment
- 9.6.11 Emergency Power Equipment
- 9.6.12 Tall Shelving
- 9.6.13 Gas Water Heaters
- 9.7 The Need For Systems Design
- 9.9 Nonstructural Codes
- 9.10 Methods of Seismic Qualification [Go to Page]
- 9.10.1 Design Team Judgment
- 9.10.2 Prior Qualification
- 9.10.3 Mathematical Analysis and Other Qualification Methods
- 9.11 Some Myths Regarding Nonstructural Design [Go to Page]
- “My Engineers take care of all my seismic design” [Go to Page]
- “My building is base isolated … I don't need to worry about the nonstructural components”
- “Window films protect windows from breakage in an earthquake”
- “My building in San Bernardino survived the 1994 Northridge earthquake … it is earthquake proof”
- “Vertical motions in earthquakes do not need to be considered for nonstructural design”
- 9.12 What Can the Architect Do to Decrease Nonstructural Damage
- 9.13 The Complexity of Retrofitting Existing Buildings
- 9.14 Conclusions
- 9.15 References
- CHAPTER 10: DESIGN FOR EXTREME HAZARDS [Go to Page]
- 10.1 Introduction
- 10.2 Multihazard Design System Interactions [Go to Page]